Islamic Science and Techology

In the 7^th century a religion called Islam began. It was created by someone called the prophet Muhammad in Mecca. Muhammad believed that God sent him to teach people Islam. The book that teaches the beliefs of Islam is called the Qur’an (‘Koran’). People who believe in Islam are called Muslims.  In Arabic Islam means “submission to God.” Early Islam spread throughout the Middle East and moved rapidly to the west across North Africa to southern Spain, to the east through Persia, and to the north to Istanbul.

Islamic scholars made great discoveries and scientific developments.  Muslims started sharing their ideas with places like China, India, and southern Europe.  They also started to learn knowledge from those places.  Both trade and conquest led to greater technology and learning.  Muslims started universities for studying, which helped spread knowledge.  It was the duty of every Muslim to seek knowledge.  Navigational aids for travelers, geographic maps, medical knowledge, ways of measuring and calculating, and tools for agriculture were all encouraged and welcomed.  Books and paper were very important for sharing knowledge.  Arabic language was formed and became the international language of scholarship.  Muslim scholars translated very important works from Greek, Latin, and other languages.  This helped preserve ancient scientific works.  Then the Muslims taught each other.

I saw several different Muslim inventions at the Museum of Islamic Science and Technology in Istanbul. The water clock, for example, was made using water, paper, and a floating rod.  Water would come down from a tube at even amounts of time.  The water would flow into a chamber that had a floating rod.  Behind the floating rod there was something like a ruler that had numbers up to 24 hours.  Every hour the water would flow in and make the rod rise up the clock. 

Another thing that Muslims invented was the water screw.  The water screw was used to bring water from low rivers to higher land. Water would go down a stream and turn a water wheel.  When the water wheel turns, it turns a pole.  The turning pole turns a gear which then turns the water screw.  The water goes into the screw and slowly goes up a tunnel to higher land.   

Water screw invented by Archimedes in Greece

Islamic version of the water screw attached to a water wheel

A third invention that Muslims created was a cannon that shot three giant arrows at one time.  There were cranks in the back of the machine.  A string was wrapped around a pole that was connected to the cranks.  On the front of the machine is something shaped like a bow and arrow, except that it has three bows and three arrows on it. The arrows have notches so that the string will stay in place.  The string that is connected to the crank splits into three strings.  Each string hooks onto an arrow.  When the people turn the crank, the strings on the cranks pull back which pulls back the arrows.  When people let go of the crank the string unwinds and releases the arrows, which shoot out. This invention was used for attacking castles.

A siege bow that shoots only one arrow (similar to the three arrow bow)

In the Early Middle Ages, Europeans lost a lot of the knowledge of ancient Greece and Rome. Muslims rediscovered this knowledge and shared it with Europeans during the Renaissance. The Muslims used those ideas to invent new machines. These inventions helped keep Greek and Roman knowledge alive. 

Drawings of the water screw and siege bow drawn by Leonardo Da Vinci 

The Creation of the Alps

The Alps were formed by the movement of tectonic plates and glaciers.  Millions of year ago, Europe and Africa had an ocean between them.  The ocean was called Tethys.  Around 30-24 million years ago the two continental plates collided together to make the Alps.  When the two plates collided, they pushed up granite from below and the mountains were formed.  Another thing that made the Alps was glaciers. Surface glaciers are large sheets of ice that form high up in mountains where it is cold.  These glaciers gradually move down the mountain pushing and cracking rocks. This creates jagged and steep mountain sides. Over time the glaciers expand and later they melt.  Once the glaciers recede, they leave rocks and boulders behind.  They also leave bowls which some people ski in.  Mont Blanc is one of the many mountains in the Alps that was formed by glaciers. Next time you see mountains you can see how glaciers or tectonic plates may have formed them.

These mountains in Styria, Austria were formed by glaciers.  Notice the jagged edges and the steep sides.

This mountain near Bad Mitterndorf, Austria is made of granite that was pushed up by tectonic plates.

In this image there is a bowl made by a glacier melting. Bowls can make great places for downhill skiing. This photo was taken from Tauplitz ski area in Austria.

Source

On this mountain, Mont Blanc, you can see how it was cracked and formed by glaciers.

All photos by Nicholas, Simone and Mark except where noted.

Medieval Life Project

Life in Medieval Villages and Towns

Life in a medieval village was hard.  People all had to work for the lord.  They were not allowed to leave the village without the lord’s permission.  They had to work all the time growing crops for the lord.  They gave some of the crops to the lord, and some they got to keep.  Each family had their own farming strip where they could grow crops.  The villages usually had a mill where they would grind grains.  They would have animals eat grass around the mill.

Villagers had to sleep with their animals.  The animals would sleep on one side of their house, and they would sleep on the other.  In the village the villagers’ houses were only one room.  They would have a hole in the roof so that the smoke from fires would go out.  The walls of the houses were made out of dung and mud.  The roof was made out of straw.

Medieval village home, Source

The lord owned all of the people’s land.  They also controlled all of the people.  That is why all the villagers had to work for the lord and give him some of their crops.  During the winter the villagers would have to work hard to stay alive.  Sometimes the villagers would slaughter one of their animals and eat it because they didn’t have lots of food.  They would also use animal skin to make warm underclothes.

In the towns things were different. The streets were covered with people.  The houses had more than one room and were more than a story high because there was not much space. Instead of having wide houses they had tall houses which took up less space and they could fit more people in one area. There were many different kinds of people. There were beggers, rich men, and foreign traders.

Medieval Inn, Rothenburg ob der Tauber, Germany

Rothenburg ob der Tauber

Trading goods from far away were brought on horseback.  One of the shops was called the tanner shop.  That is where people made leather. There were also butcher shops where townspeople got meat. All around the towns there were buckets of water in case of fires. There were signs on stores with pictures so people who couldn’t read would know what the shop sold. Those are some of the facts about villages and towns.

Medieval butcher shop sign

Griffin Inn, Rothenburg ob der Tauber

There are six different things that townspeople would look out for when they were going to build a town. The towns were made near castles for protection. They would also build on top of mountains so that intruders would have to climb the mountains and also they could shoot down on the intruders. They would build a wall around the town so intruders couldn’t get in.  Building near rocks was good because they could build houses with the rocks. The rocks could also work as obstacles for intruders. Building near a forest was very smart because they needed wood for weapons, fire, and also for building houses. They needed fire to keep warm and for cooking food. Most towns would build near water so that they had water close for drinking and so that intruders would have to get over the water to attack.

Lucerne, Switzerland, Source

Lucerne, Switzerland is a great example of a town that was built with these six things in mind.  It is near a forest and also has a big river running through it and a lake in front of it. It is also built on a mountain.  Though it does not have a castle near it, it basically was a castle. It once had a wall that surrounded it. One town that still has its medieval wall is Rothenburg ob der Tauber, Germany. Lucerne has a grass plane so that townspeople could build crops. They have a mill that is powered by water. That is why Lucerne is such a good example for a town that is built in a great place.

Town wall, Rothenburg ob der Tauber

As towns became larger more people became more independent.  Fewer people had to work for the lord, and more people got to work for themselves. That happened with the end of the Middle Ages. Now people are free.

Gothic Architecture Project

The Seven Characteristics of Gothic Architecture

All over Europe there are Gothic cathedrals built during the Middle Ages.  I have seen cathedrals in Italy, Switzerland, Germany, and the Czech Republic.  The ones that I have seen had lots of stained glass windows.  There were colorful pictures of Jesus, Joseph, Mary, and saints.  There were also scenes from the Bible.

St. Vitus Cathedral, Prague

There are seven characteristics of Gothic cathedrals.  First, the cathedrals were built tall.  They were made tall to look like they are reaching to Heaven.  Many churches were competing to see who could make the tallest cathedral.  Before the Gothic cathedrals, stone buildings were made low and wide because they hadn't figured out how to make tall cathedrals without having them fall.

St. Vitus Cathedral, Prague

Second, to make these cathedrals so tall they had to make things called flying buttresses.  The flying buttress comes from the outside of the cathedral and keeps the arches from falling.  The top part of the church arch would fall down with all of the weight on it.  The top part of the arch would push down and the sides of the arch would push it out so the whole arch would fall.  The flying buttresses push into the sides so the top part of the arches can’t push them out.  If the flying buttress is placed in the wrong spot, then the arch can fall above or below the flying buttress.

St. Vitus Cathedral, Prague

Third, there is the pointed arch. The pointed arch is made so that middle of the arch does not fall down.  In the middle of the pointed arch is the key stone.  The key stone is placed in the point of the arch. It pushes down to keep the arch in place.  It also pushes out the stones on the side, which is why we have the flying buttress to keep the stones in place.

St. Vitus Cathedral, Prague

Fourth, there is the vaulted ceiling.  It looks like many arches coming together at the very center of the ceiling.  At the top is a stone that is called the boss stone. Like a key stone, it keeps the arches together.  Together all of the vaulted ceilings look like a spider web.  The vaulted ceiling helps make the churches tall.  The vaulted ceilings also helps music and the priest’s voice echo.

St. Vitus Cathedral, Prague

Fifth, the inside of the Gothic cathedrals look nicer because they are light and airy.  The arches and the vaulted ceiling allow builders to use stained glass windows more. Light shines through the stained glass windows to make the room bright and airy.  Before arches and vaulted ceilings, the walls were made out of stone and the windows were just slits in the wall.

St. Vitus Cathedral, Prague

Sixth, Gothic cathedrals usually have gargoyles on the outside of the building.  Gargoyles are good for decoration but can also be used for gutters.  The churches also use gargoyles so people get scared about going to hell and being with the scary gargoyles. That way the people go to church and pray.

St. Vitus Cathedral, Prague

Seventh, builders made the churches fancy and ornate.  To make the churches ornate, they put in lots of colorful stained glass windows, rose windows, and statues.  During the Reformation churches became simpler with fewer decorations. 

St. Vitus Cathedral, Prague

If you ever go to a cathedral, you can try and find these things.  Knowing these things, you might enjoy the cathedral more.  I hope you get to go to a cathedral if you haven’t already and enjoy it as much as I have.

For more information on the seven characteristics of Gothic Cathedrals, see this website.
Photos by Nicholas and Mark.